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===Mutilation of Japanese war dead===
===Mutilation of Japanese war dead===
{{Main|American mutilation of Japanese war dead}}
{{Main|American mutilation of Japanese war dead}}
Algunos muertos japoneses fueron profanados y / o mutilados, por ejemplo, orinando sobre ellos, disparando cadáveres, o [[American Mutilation of Japanese War Dead|llevándose las partes de cuerpos de japoneses]] (como las orejas o incluso cráneos) como recuerdos o trofeos.<ref> [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=114661059720058 Xavier Guillaume, "A Heterology of American GIs during World War II"]. ''H-US-Japan''' (July, 2003). Access date: January 4, 2008.</ref>
Some dead Japanese were desecrated and/or mutilated, for example by urinating on them, shooting corpses, or [[American Mutilation of Japanese War Dead|taking Japanese body parts]] (such as ears or even skulls) as souvenirs or trophies.<ref> [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=114661059720058 Xavier Guillaume, "A Heterology of American GIs during World War II"]. ''H-US-Japan''' (July, 2003). Access date: January 4, 2008.</ref>


La práctica de los Aliados de recoger partes de los cuerpos de los japoneses se produjo en "una escala lo suficientemente grande como a la preocupación de las autoridades militares de los aliados durante el conflicto y ha sido ampliamente reportado y comentado en la prensa en tiempos de guerra norteamericanos y japoneses."<ref>Simon Harrison “Skull Trophies of the Pacific War: transgressive objects of remembrance” ''Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute'' (N.S) 12, 817-836 (2006) p.818</ref>
The Allied practice of collecting Japanese body parts occurred on "a scale large enough to concern the Allied military authorities throughout the conflict and was widely reported and commented on in the American and Japanese wartime press."<ref>Simon Harrison “Skull Trophies of the Pacific War: transgressive objects of remembrance” ''Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute'' (N.S) 12, 817-836 (2006) p.818</ref>


La colección de partes de cuerpo japoneses comenzaron muy temprano en la guerra, lo que provocó en 1942 el fin de septiembre para una acción disciplinaria contra esta forma de obtención de recuerdos.<ref>Simon Harrison “Skull Trophies of the Pacific War: transgressive objects of remembrance” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (N.S) 12, 817-836 (2006)p. 827</ref> Harrison concludes that, since this was the first real opportunity to take such items (the [[Battle of Guadalcanal]]), "[c]learly, the collection of body parts on a scale large enough to concern the military authorities had started as soon as the first living or dead Japanese bodies were encountered."<ref>Simon Harrison “Skull Trophies of the Pacific War: transgressive objects of remembrance” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (N.S) 12, 817-836 (2006) p.827</ref>
La colección de partes de cuerpo japoneses comenzaron muy temprano en la guerra, lo que provocó en 1942 el fin de septiembre para una acción disciplinaria contra esta forma de obtención de recuerdos.<ref>Simon Harrison “Skull Trophies of the Pacific War: transgressive objects of remembrance” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (N.S) 12, 817-836 (2006)p. 827</ref> Harrison concludes that, since this was the first real opportunity to take such items (the [[Battle of Guadalcanal]]), "[c]learly, the collection of body parts on a scale large enough to concern the military authorities had started as soon as the first living or dead Japanese bodies were encountered."<ref>Simon Harrison “Skull Trophies of the Pacific War: transgressive objects of remembrance” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (N.S) 12, 817-836 (2006) p.827</ref>


Cuando los restos japoneses fueron repatriados de las [[Islas Marianas]] después de la guerra, aproximadamente el 60 por ciento no tenían sus cráneos.<ref>Simon Harrison “Skull Trophies of the Pacific War: transgressive objects of remembrance” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (N.S) 12, 817-836 (2006) p.828</ref>
When Japanese remains were repatriated from the [[Mariana Islands]] after the war, roughly 60 percent were missing their skulls.<ref>Simon Harrison “Skull Trophies of the Pacific War: transgressive objects of remembrance” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (N.S) 12, 817-836 (2006) p.828</ref>


In a memorandum dated June 13, 1944, the U.S. Army [[Judge Advocate General's Corps|Judge Advocate General]] (JAG) asserted that “such atrocious and brutal policies,” in addition to being repugnant, were violations of the laws of war, and recommended the distribution to all commanders of a directive pointing out that "the maltreatment of enemy war dead was a blatant violation of the 1929 Geneva Convention on the sick and wounded, which provided that: After every engagement, the belligerent who remains in possession of the field shall take measures to search for wounded and the dead and to protect them from robbery and ill treatment.”
In a memorandum dated June 13, 1944, the U.S. Army [[Judge Advocate General's Corps|Judge Advocate General]] (JAG) asserted that “such atrocious and brutal policies,” in addition to being repugnant, were violations of the laws of war, and recommended the distribution to all commanders of a directive pointing out that "the maltreatment of enemy war dead was a blatant violation of the 1929 Geneva Convention on the sick and wounded, which provided that: After every engagement, the belligerent who remains in possession of the field shall take measures to search for wounded and the dead and to protect them from robbery and ill treatment.”
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{{Main|Rape during the occupation of Japan|War rape}}
{{Main|Rape during the occupation of Japan|War rape}}


Se ha dicho que algunos soldados de EE.UU. violaron a las mujeres de Okinawa durante la [[Batalla de Okinawa]] en 1945. Hubo 4.336 denuncias de violaciones durante los primeros 10 días de la ocupación de [[Prefectura de Kanagawa]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Schrijvers|first=Peter|title=The GI War Against Japan|publisher=New York University Press|location=New York City|year=2002|isbn=0814798160|page=212}}</ref>
It has been claimed that some U.S. soldiers raped Okinawan women during the [[Battle of Okinawa]] in 1945. There were 4,336 reported rapes during the first 10 days of the occupation of [[Kanagawa prefecture]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Schrijvers|first=Peter|title=The GI War Against Japan|publisher=New York University Press|location=New York City|year=2002|isbn=0814798160|page=212}}</ref>


El historiador okinawense Oshiro Masayasu (ex director del Archivo Histórico de la Prefectura de Okinawa), escribe sobre la base de varios años de investigación:
Okinawan historian Oshiro Masayasu (former director of the Okinawa Prefectural Historical Archives) writes based on several years of research:
:Soon after the U.S. marines landed, all the women of a village on [[Motobu]] Peninsula fell into the hands of American soldiers. En ese momento, sólo había mujeres, niños y ancianos en el pueblo, como todos los jóvenes habían sido movilizados para la guerra. Poco después de aterrizar, los infantes de marina "limpió" toda la aldea, pero no encontró señales de las fuerzas japonesas. Aprovechando la situación, empezaron a "la caza de mujeres" en plena luz del día y los que estaban escondidos en el pueblo o refugios cerca del aire fueron sacados uno tras otro.<ref>Tanaka, Toshiyuki. [http://books.google.com/books?id=qrxdE2sheOUC&pg=PA111 ''Japan's Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution During World War II''], Routledge, 2003, p.111. ISBN 0203302753</ref>
:Soon after the U.S. marines landed, all the women of a village on [[Motobu]] Peninsula fell into the hands of American soldiers. En ese momento, sólo había mujeres, niños y ancianos en el pueblo, como todos los jóvenes habían sido movilizados para la guerra. Poco después de aterrizar, los infantes de marina "limpió" toda la aldea, pero no encontró señales de las fuerzas japonesas. Aprovechando la situación, empezaron a "la caza de mujeres" en plena luz del día y los que estaban escondidos en el pueblo o refugios cerca del aire fueron sacados uno tras otro.<ref>Tanaka, Toshiyuki. [http://books.google.com/books?id=qrxdE2sheOUC&pg=PA111 ''Japan's Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution During World War II''], Routledge, 2003, p.111. ISBN 0203302753</ref>


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! ||colspan="6"| '''origin'''
! ||colspan="6"| '''origin'''
|-
|-
| '''in hands of''' || {{bandera|URSS}} || {{bandera|EEUU}} & {{bandera|UK}}|| {{bandera|ROC}} || [[Western Allies|Western Allied]] || {{bandera|Alemania Nazi}} || {{bandera|Japón}}
| '''in hands of''' || {{bandera|URSS}} || {{bandera|EEUU}} & {{bandera|UK}}|| {{bandera|ROC}} || [[Western Allies|Western Allied]] || {{flag|Nazi Germany}} || {{bandera|Japón}}
|-
|-
| {{bandera|Reino Unido}} || - || - || - || - || 0.03% ||
| {{flag|United Kingdom}} || - || - || - || - || 0.03% ||
|-
|-
| {{bandera|Francia}} || - || - || - || - || 2.58% ||
| {{flag|France}} || - || - || - || - || 2.58% ||
|-
|-
| [[East European]] || - || - || - || - || 32.9% ||
| [[East European]] || - || - || - || - || 32.9% ||
Línea 144: Línea 144:
| {{bandera|Unión Soviética}} || - || - || - || - || 14.7-35.8% || 10%
| {{bandera|Unión Soviética}} || - || - || - || - || 14.7-35.8% || 10%
|-
|-
| {{bandera|Estados Unidos}} || - || - || - || - || 0.15% || varying
| {{flag|United States}} || - || - || - || - || 0.15% || varying
|-
|-
| {{bandera|Japón}} || || || >99% || 27% || - || -
| {{flag|Japan}} || || || >99% || 27% || - || -
|-
|-
| {{bandera|Alemania Nazi}} || 57.5% || 4% || || || - || -
| {{flag|Nazi Germany}} || 57.5% || 4% || || || - || -
|}
|}


Revisión del 02:52 28 mar 2010

El texto que sigue es una traducción incompleta. Si quieres colaborar con Wikipedia, busca el artículo original y finaliza esta traducción.
Copia y pega el siguiente código en la página de discusión del autor de este artículo: {{subst:Aviso traducción incompleta|Crímenes de guerra de los Aliados durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial}} ~~~~

Allied war crimes were violations of the laws of war committed by the Allies of World War II against civilian populations or military personnel of the Axis Powers.

At the end of World War II, several trials of Axis war criminals took place, most famously the Nuremberg Trials. Sin embargo, en Europa, estos tribunales se han creado bajo la autoridad de la Carta de Londres, y sólo puede examinar las denuncias de crímenes de guerra cometidos por personas que actuaban en los intereses de la países europeos del Eje.

Hubo una serie de crímenes de guerra contra personal de los aliados que fueron investigados por las potencias aliadas y que condujo en algunos casos a consejos de guerra. Otros incidentes reclamados por los historiadores han sido los crímenes bajo la ley de guerra en funcionamiento en el tiempo, pero que, por diversas razones no han sido investigados por las fuerzas aliadas durante la guerra, o que fueron investigados y de una decisión no se ha adoptado para enjuiciar.

Europe

Canada

Leonforte, July 1943. According to Mitcham and von Stauffenberg in The Battle of Sicily, The Loyal Edmonton Regiment killed captured German prisoners.[1]​ The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada randomly burned houses in Friesoythe, northwestern Germany in April 1945.[2]​

France

Maquis

Following the Operation Dragoon landings in southern France and the collapse of the German military occupation in August 1944, large numbers of Germans could not escape from France and surrendered to the French Forces of the Interior. The Resistance killed few of their German military prisoners, but few of their Gestapo or SS prisoners survived.[3]​

Los maquis se sabe que han ejecutado a 17 prisioneros de guerra alemanes en Saint-Julien-de-Crempse(in the Dordogne region), 14 de los cuales han sido identificados positivamente, el 10 de septiembre de 1944. Los asesinatos fueron los homicidios por venganza de los asesinatos alemanes de 17 habitantes de la localidad de San Julien el 3 de agosto de 1944, que fueron ellos los asesinatos de represalia en respuesta a la actividad de la resistencia en la región de San Julien, que fue el hogar de una activa célula Maquis.[4]​

Moroccan Goumiers

Véase también: Marocchinate

French Moroccan troops of the French Expeditionary Corps, known as Goumiers, committed mass rapes and other war crimes in Italy after the Battle of Monte Cassino[5]​ and in Germany. According to Italian sources, more than 7,000 Italian civilians, children among them, were raped by Goumiers.[6]​ This is featured in the Italian film La Ciociara with Sophia Loren.

Soviet Union

Katyn memorial.
Véase también: Soviet war crimes

The Soviet Union had not signed the Geneva Convention (1929) relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War. This cast doubt on whether the Soviet treatment of Axis POWs was a war crime, although they "were [not] treated even remotely in accordance with the Geneva Convention",[7]​ causing the deaths of hundreds of thousands.[8]​ However, The Nuremberg Tribunal rejected this as a general argument, and held that the Hague Conventions (which the 1929 Geneva Convention did not replace but only augmented, and unlike the 1929 convention were ones which the Russian Empire had ratified) and other customary laws of war regarding the treatment of prisoners of war were binding on all nations in a conflict.[9]​[10]​[11]​

Mass rape and other war crimes by Soviet troops during the occupation of East Prussia (Danzig),[12]​[13]​[14]​[15]​ parts of Pomerania and Silesia; during the Battle of Berlin[16]​, and the Battle of Budapest.[cita requerida]

United Kingdom

The historian Donald Bloxham states that "The bombing of Dresden on 13-14 February 1945 was a war crime".[17]​[18]​ He further argues that there was a strong prima facie for trying Winston Churchill among others and that there is theoretical case that he could have been found guilty. "This should be a sobering thought. If, however it is also a startling one, this is probably less the result of widespread understanding of the nuance of international law and more because in the popular mind 'war criminal', like 'paedophile' or 'terrorist', has developed into a moral rather than a legal categorisation."[17]​

The "London Cage", a MI19 prisoner of war facility in the UK during and immediately after WWII, was subject to allegations of torture.[19]​

United States

Plantilla:Also

Archivo:DachauMassacre.JPG
Many SS guards at Dachau concentration camp were executed soon after liberation.
  • Canicattì massacre: matanza de civiles italianos por el teniente coronel McCaffrey. Una investigación confidencial se hizo, pero McCaffrey, nunca fue acusado de un delito relacionado con el incidente. Murió en 1954. Este incidente se mantuvo prácticamente desconocida hasta que Joseph S. Salemi de la Universidad de Nueva York, cuyo padre fue testigo de ello, lo publicó.[20]​[21]​
  • The Dachau massacre: killing of German prisoners of war and surrendering SS soldiers.[22]​
  • In the Biscari massacre, which consist of two instances of mass murders, U.S. troops of the 45th Infantry Division killed roughly 75 prisoners of war, mostly Italian.[23]​[24]​
  • Rheinwiesenlager prison camps for German POWs.[25]​[cita requerida]
  • Operation Teardrop: Eight of the surviving, captured crewmen from the sunk German submarine U-546 are tortured by US military personnel. Historian Philip K. Lundeberg has written that the beating and torture of U-546's survivors was a singular atrocity motivated by the interrogators' need to quickly get information on what the US believed were potential missile attacks on the continental US by German submarines.[26]​

Unrestricted submarine warfare

In the Nuremberg Trial, German Admiral Karl Dönitz was tried, among other crimes, for issuing orders to target Allied civilians, a policy known as unrestricted submarine warfare. Dönitz was found guilty, but no sentence was imposed, because of evidence presented to the the Tribunal that the Royal Navy and the United States Navy had issued similar orders. [27]​

The US Navy applied the same policy to operations in the Pacific. According to Gary E. Weir of the US Naval Historical Center, because of the way war was waged in the Atlantic, "when Admiral Thomas C. Hart proclaimed unrestricted submarine warfare against Japan on 8 December 1941, it came as no surprise".[28]​

Pacific War

Véanse también: Japanese prisoners of war in World War II y Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union.

Treatment of POWs and civilians

Allied soldiersPlantilla:Which? in Pacific and Asian theatres sometimes killed Japanese soldiers who were attempting to surrender or after they had surrendered. A social historian of the Pacific War, John W. Dower, states that "by the final years of the war against Japan, a truly vicious cycle had developed in which the Japanese reluctance to surrender had meshed horrifically with Allied disinterest in taking prisoners."[29]​ Dower suggests that most Japanese personnel were told that they would be "killed or tortured" if they fell into Allied hands and, as a consequence, most of those faced with defeat on the battlefield fought to the death or committed suicide.[30]​ In addition, it was held to be shamefully disgraceful for a Japanese soldier to surrender, leading many to suicide or fight to the death regardless of beliefs concerning their possible treatment as POWs. In fact, the Japanese Field Service Code said that surrender was not permissible.[31]​ And while it was "not official policy" for Allied personnel to take no prisoners, "over wide reaches of the Asian battleground it was everyday practice."[32]​ There were also widespread reports at the time of Japanese prisoners killing Allied medical personnel and guards with concealed weapons after surrendering, leading many Allied soldiers to conclude that taking prisoners was too risky.[33]​

China

R. J. Rummel states that there is little information regarding the general treatment of Japanese prisoners taken by Chinese Nationalist forces during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-45).[34]​ Sin embargo, los civiles chinos y los reclutas, así como los civiles japoneses, fueron maltratados por los soldados chinos. Rummel afirma que los campesinos chinos "a menudo no tienen menos que temer de sus propios soldados que lo hicieron de los japoneses." [35]​ He also wrote that, in some intakes of Nationalist conscripts, 90% died from disease, starvation or violence, before they had even commenced training.[36]​ In “The Birth of Communist China”, C.P. Fitzgerald describes China under the rule of KMT thus: “the Chinese people groaned under a regime Fascist in every quality except efficiency.” [37]​

Examples of war crimes committed by Chinese forces include:

  • En 1937, cerca de Shanghai, el asesinato, tortura y asalto de los prisioneros de guerra japoneses y civiles chinos acusados de colaboración, se registraron en las fotografías tomadas por el hombre de negocios suizo Tom Simmen.[38]​ (In 1996, Simmen's son released the pictures, showing Nationalist Chinese soldiers involved in arbitrary executions by decapitation and shooting, as well as public torture.)
  • the Tungchow Mutiny of August 1937; Chinese soldiers recruited by Japan mutinied and switched sides in Tōngzhōu, Beijing, before attacking Japanese civilians and killing 280.[34]​
  • Nationalist troops in Hubei Province, during May 1943, ordered whole towns to evacuate and then "plundered" them; any civilians who refused and/or were unable to leave, were killed.[35]​

The Pacific

Véase también: Japanese prisoners of war in World War II

American soldiers in the Pacific often deliberately killed Japanese soldiers who had surrendered. According to Richard Aldrich, who has published a study of the diaries kept by United States and Australian soldiers, they sometimes massacred prisoners of war.[39]​ Dower states that in "many instances ... Japanese who did become prisoners were killed on the spot or en route to prison compounds."[32]​ According to Aldrich it was common practice for U.S. troops not to take prisoners.[40]​ This analysis is supported by British historian Niall Ferguson,[41]​ who also says that, in 1943, "a secret [U. S.] intelligence report noted that only the promise of ice cream and three days leave would ... induce American troops not to kill surrendering Japanese."[42]​

Ferguson states such practices played a role in the ratio of Japanese prisoners to dead being 1:100 in late 1944. That same year, efforts were taken by Allied high commanders to suppress "take no prisoners" attitudes,[42]​ among their own personnel (as these were affecting intelligence gathering) and to encourage Japanese soldiers to surrender. Ferguson adds that measures by Allied commanders to improve the ratio of Japanese prisoners to Japanese dead, resulted in it reaching 1:7, by mid-1945. Nevertheless, taking no prisoners was still standard practice among U. S. troops at the Battle of Okinawa, in April–June 1945.[43]​

Ulrich Straus, a U.S. Japanologist, suggests that frontline troops intensely hated Japanese military personnel and were "not easily persuaded" to take or protect prisoners, as they believed that Allied personnel who surrendered, got "no mercy" from the Japanese.[44]​ Allied soldiers believed that Japanese soldiers were inclined to feign surrender, in order to make surprise attacks.[44]​ Therefore, according to Straus, "[s]enior officers opposed the taking of prisoners[,] on the grounds that it needlessly exposed American troops to risks..."[44]​ When prisoners nevertheless were taken, many times these were shot during transport because "it was too much bother to take [them] in".[44]​

Ferguson indica que "no era sólo el miedo a una acción disciplinaria o de la deshonra que impiden que los soldados alemanes y japoneses de rendirse. Lo más importante para la mayoría de los soldados fue la percepción de que los prisioneros serían asesinados por el enemigo de todos modos, y así también podríamos luchar."[45]​

U. S. historian James J. Weingartner attributes the very low number of Japanese in U.S. POW compounds to two important factors, a Japanese reluctance to surrender and a widespread American "conviction that the Japanese were "animals" or "subhuman'" and unworthy of the normal treatment accorded to POWs.[46]​ The latter reason is supported by Ferguson, who says that "Allied troops often saw the Japanese in the same way that Germans regarded Russians — as Untermenschen."[47]​

South-East Asia

Similar observations have been made regarding British Commonwealth personnel in South-East Asia. For instance, historians Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper state that, during the Assam campaign of 1944, "...British, Indian, and African troops methodically and ruthlessly killed all Japanese, [because they were] enraged by cases of atrocities against their own wounded... Lieutenant General William Slim wrote laconically: 'quarter was neither asked nor given.'"[48]​ Plantilla:Expand section

Mutilation of Japanese war dead

Artículo principal: American mutilation of Japanese war dead

Some dead Japanese were desecrated and/or mutilated, for example by urinating on them, shooting corpses, or taking Japanese body parts (such as ears or even skulls) as souvenirs or trophies.[49]​

The Allied practice of collecting Japanese body parts occurred on "a scale large enough to concern the Allied military authorities throughout the conflict and was widely reported and commented on in the American and Japanese wartime press."[50]​

La colección de partes de cuerpo japoneses comenzaron muy temprano en la guerra, lo que provocó en 1942 el fin de septiembre para una acción disciplinaria contra esta forma de obtención de recuerdos.[51]​ Harrison concludes that, since this was the first real opportunity to take such items (the Battle of Guadalcanal), "[c]learly, the collection of body parts on a scale large enough to concern the military authorities had started as soon as the first living or dead Japanese bodies were encountered."[52]​

When Japanese remains were repatriated from the Mariana Islands after the war, roughly 60 percent were missing their skulls.[53]​

In a memorandum dated June 13, 1944, the U.S. Army Judge Advocate General (JAG) asserted that “such atrocious and brutal policies,” in addition to being repugnant, were violations of the laws of war, and recommended the distribution to all commanders of a directive pointing out that "the maltreatment of enemy war dead was a blatant violation of the 1929 Geneva Convention on the sick and wounded, which provided that: After every engagement, the belligerent who remains in possession of the field shall take measures to search for wounded and the dead and to protect them from robbery and ill treatment.”

These practises were in addition also in violation of the unwritten customary rules of land warfare and could lead to the death penalty.[54]​ La JAG de la Marina de EE.UU. refleja la opinión de que una semana más tarde, y añadió que "la conducta atroz de que algunos miembros del personal eran culpables podría dar lugar a represalias por parte de los japoneses, que estaría justificada en virtud del derecho internacional". [54]​

Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Artículo principal: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

In 1963, the Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were the subject of a judicial review in Ryuichi Shimoda et al. v. The State.[55]​ The District Court of Tokyo declined to rule on the legality of nuclear weapons in general, but found that "the attacks upon Hiroshima and Nagasaki caused such severe and indiscriminate suffering that they did violate the most basic legal principles governing the conduct of war."[56]​ Francisco Gómez points out in an article published in the International Review of the Red Cross that, with respect to the "anti-city" or "blitz" strategy, that "in examining these events in the light of international humanitarian law, it should be borne in mind that during the Second World War there was no agreement, treaty, convention or any other instrument governing the protection of the civilian population or civilian property." [57]​ The possibility that attacks like the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings could be considered war crimes is one of the reasons given by John R. Bolton (Undersecretary of State for Arms Control and International Security (2001-2005) and U.S. Permanent Representative to the United Nations (2005)) for the United States not agreeing to be bound by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.[58]​

Rape

Artículos principales: Rape during the occupation of Japan y War rape.

It has been claimed that some U.S. soldiers raped Okinawan women during the Battle of Okinawa in 1945. There were 4,336 reported rapes during the first 10 days of the occupation of Kanagawa prefecture.[59]​

Okinawan historian Oshiro Masayasu (former director of the Okinawa Prefectural Historical Archives) writes based on several years of research:

Soon after the U.S. marines landed, all the women of a village on Motobu Peninsula fell into the hands of American soldiers. En ese momento, sólo había mujeres, niños y ancianos en el pueblo, como todos los jóvenes habían sido movilizados para la guerra. Poco después de aterrizar, los infantes de marina "limpió" toda la aldea, pero no encontró señales de las fuerzas japonesas. Aprovechando la situación, empezaron a "la caza de mujeres" en plena luz del día y los que estaban escondidos en el pueblo o refugios cerca del aire fueron sacados uno tras otro.[60]​

Sin embargo, a pesar de ser dicho por los militares japoneses que serían objeto de la violación, tortura y asesinato a manos de los estadounidenses, civiles japoneses "se sorprendían con frecuencia en el tratamiento comparativamente humano que recibieron del enemigo americano ".[61]​[62]​ According to Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power by Mark Selden, the Americans "did not pursue a policy of torture, rape, and murder of civilians as Japanese military officials had warned."[63]​

Comparative death rates of POWs

According to James D. Morrow, "Death rates of POWs held is one measure of adherence to the standards of the treaties because substandard treatment leads to death of prisoners." The "democratic states generally provide good treatment of POWs".[64]​

Death rates of POWs held by Axis powers

  • Chinese POWs held by Japan: > 99%october 2009[cita requerida] (only 56 survivors at the end of the war)[65]​
  • U.S. and British Commonwealth POWs held by Germany: ~4% [64]​
  • Soviet POWs held by Germany: 57.5% [66]​
  • Western Allied POWs held by Japan: 27% [67]​

Death rates of POWs held by the Allies

  • German POWs in East European (not including the Soviet Union) hands 32.9%[66]​
  • German soldiers held by Soviet Union: 15-33% (14.7% in The Dictators by Richard Overy, 35.8% in Ferguson[66]​)
  • Prisioneros de guerra japoneses en manos de la Unión Soviética: 10%
  • Prisioneros de guerra alemanes en manos de los ingleses 0.03%[66]​
  • Prisioneros de guerra alemanes en manos norteamericanas 0.15%[66]​
  • Prisioneros de guerra alemanes en manos de los franceses 2.58%[66]​
  • Japanese POWs held by U.S.: relatively low, mainly suicides according to James D. Morrow[68]​ or according to Ulrich Straus high as many prisoners were shot by front line troops.[44]​
  • Japanese POWs in Chinese hands. 24%

Summary table

origin
in hands of Bandera de la Unión Soviética Bandera de Estados Unidos & Bandera del Reino Unido Bandera de la República de China Western Allied Plantilla:Geodatos Nazi Germany Bandera de Japón
Bandera del Reino Unido - - - - 0.03%
Bandera de Francia - - - - 2.58%
East European - - - - 32.9%
Bandera de la Unión Soviética - - - - 14.7-35.8% 10%
Bandera de Estados Unidos - - - - 0.15% varying
Bandera de Japón >99% 27% - -
Plantilla:Geodatos Nazi Germany 57.5% 4% - -

See also

References

  1. ↑ Mithcham, Samuel and Friedrich von Stauffenberg The Battle of Sicily
  2. ↑ The official historian of the Canadian Army, C.P. Stacey, noted in his autobiography that it was the only incident he was aware of that could be considered a war crime associated with Canadian soldiers in World War II. see: Stacey, C.P. A Date With History
  3. ↑ Beevor, Antony, D-Day, Viking, 2009 p 447
  4. ↑ After the Battle Magazine, Issue 143
  5. ↑ Italian women win cash for wartime rapes
  6. ↑ «1952: Il caso delle “marocchinate” al Parlamento». Consultado el 22 de noviembre de 2008. 
  7. ↑ Study: Soviet Prisoners-of-War (POWs), 1941-42 website of Gendercide Watch
  8. ↑ Matthew White Source List and Detailed Death Tolls for the Twentieth Century Hemoclysm: Stalin
  9. ↑ POWs and the laws of war: World War II legacy © 2003 Educational Broadcasting Corporation
  10. ↑ Jennifer K. Elsea (Legislative Attorney American Law Division) Federation of American Scientists CRS Report for Congress Lawfulness of Interrogation Techniques under the Geneva Conventions (PDF) September 8, 2004. Page 24 first paragraph see also footnotes 93 and 87
  11. ↑ German High Command Trial 30 December 1947 – 28 October 1948, PartVIII
  12. ↑ Remembering Rape: Divided Social Memory and the Red Army in Hungary 1944–1945, James Mark, Past & Present 188 (2005) 133-161
  13. ↑ Excerpt, Chapter one The Struggle for Europe: The Turbulent History of a Divided Continent 1945-2002 - William I. Hitchcock - 2003 - ISBN 0-385-49798-9
  14. ↑ A Terrible Revenge: The Ethnic Cleansing of the East European Germans, 1944-1950 - Alfred-Maurice de Zayas - 1994 - ISBN 0-312-12159-8
  15. ↑ Barefoot in the Rubble - Elizabeth B. Walter - 1997 - ISBN 0-9657793-0-0
  16. ↑ Antony Beevor "They raped every German female from eight to 80" in The Guardian May 1, 2002
  17. ↑ a b Addison, Paul & Crang, Jeremy A. (eds.). Firestorm: The Bombing of Dresden. Pimlico, 2006. ISBN 1-8441-3928-X. Chapter 9 p. 180
  18. ↑ Donald Bloxham, University of Edinburgh, The School of History, Classics and Archaeology
  19. ↑ Cobain, Ian (12 de noviembre de 2005). «The secrets of the London Cage». The Guardian. Consultado el 17 de julio de 2009. 
  20. ↑ Giovanni Bartolone, Le altre stragi: Le stragi alleate e tedesche nella Sicilia del 1943-1944
  21. ↑ George Duncan, Massacres and Atrocities of World War II in the Axis Countries
  22. ↑ Albert Panebianco (ed). Dachau its liberation 57th Infantry Association, Felix L. Sparks, Secretary 15 June 1989. (backup site)
  23. ↑ Weingartner, James J. A Peculiar Crusadee: Willis M. Everett and the Malmedy massacre, NYU Press, 2000, p. 118. ISBN 0814793665
  24. ↑ James J. Weingartner, "Massacre at Biscari: Patton and an American War Crime", Historian, Volume 52 Issue 1, Pages 24 - 39, 23 Aug 2007
  25. ↑ U.S. (and French) abuse of German PoWs, 1945-1948
  26. ↑ Lundeberg, Philip K. (1994). «Operation Teardrop Revisited». En Runyan, Timothy J. and Copes, Jan M, ed. To Die Gallantly : The Battle of the Atlantic. Boulder: Westview Press. ISBN 0813388155. , pp. 221-226; Blair, Clay (1998). Hitler's U-Boat War. The Hunted, 1942 – 1945 (Modern Library edición). New York: Random House. ISBN 0679640339. , p. 687.
  27. ↑ Judgement: Doenitz the Avalon Project at the Yale Law School
  28. ↑ Gary E. Weir Silent Defense One Hundred Years of the American Submarine Force, US Naval Historical Center, Section "Shaping an Identity". Accessed 25 April 2008.
  29. ↑ John W. Dower, 1986, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (Pantheon: New York. ISBN 0-394-75172-8), p.35.
  30. ↑ John W. Dower, 1986, War Without Mercy, p.68.
  31. ↑ Ulrich Strauss, 2003, The Anguish of Surrender: Japanese POWs of World War II
  32. ↑ a b John W. Dower, 1986, War Without Mercy, p.69.
  33. ↑ Edgar Rice Burroughs, 1947, Tarzan and "The Foreign Legion"
  34. ↑ a b Rummel 1991, p. 112
  35. ↑ a b Rummel 1991, p. 113
  36. ↑ Rudolph J. Rummel, 1991, China's Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900 (ISBN 0-88738-417X) Transaction Publishers), p.115.
  37. ↑ C.P. Fitzgerald, The Birth of Communist China, Penguin Books, 1964, pp.106. (ISBN 0140206949 / ISBN 9780140206944)
  38. ↑ Tom Mintier, "Photos document brutality in Shanghai" (CNN, September 23, 1996. Access date: August 25, 2007.
  39. ↑ Ben Fenton, "American troops 'murdered Japanese PoWs'" (Daily Telegraph (UK), 06/08/2005), accessed 26/05/2007. (Adrich is a Professor of History at Nottingham University.)
  40. ↑ Ben Fenton, "American troops 'murdered Japanese PoWs'" (Daily Telegraph (UK), 06/08/2005), accessed 26/05/2007
  41. ↑ Niall Ferguson, "Prisoner Taking and Prisoner Killing in the Age of Total War: Towards a Political Economy of Military Defeat", War in History, 2004, 11 (2): 148–192
  42. ↑ a b Niall Ferguson, "Prisoner Taking and Prisoner Killing in the Age of Total War: Towards a Political Economy of Military Defeat", War in History, 2004, 11 (2): p.150
  43. ↑ Ferguson 2004, p.181
  44. ↑ a b c d e Ulrich Straus, The Anguish Of Surrender: Japanese POWs of World War II (excerpts) (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2003 ISBN 978-0-295-98336-3, p.116
  45. ↑ Niall Ferguson, "Prisoner Taking and Prisoner Killing in the Age of Total War: Towards a Political Economy of Military Defeat", War in History, 2004, 11 (2): p.176.
  46. ↑ James J. Weingartner “Trophies of War: U.S. Troops and the Mutilation of Japanese War Dead, 1941–1945” Pacific Historical Review (1992) p. 55
  47. ↑ Niall Ferguson, "Prisoner Taking and Prisoner Killing in the Age of Total War: Towards a Political Economy of Military Defeat", War in History, 2004, 11 (2): p.182
  48. ↑ Bayly, Christopher; Harper, Tim Harper (2004). Forgotten Armies: The Fall of British Asia, 1941-1945. London: Allen Lane. p. 388. ISBN 0-713-99463-0. 
  49. ↑ Xavier Guillaume, "A Heterology of American GIs during World War II". H-US-Japan' (July, 2003). Access date: January 4, 2008.
  50. ↑ Simon Harrison “Skull Trophies of the Pacific War: transgressive objects of remembrance” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (N.S) 12, 817-836 (2006) p.818
  51. ↑ Simon Harrison “Skull Trophies of the Pacific War: transgressive objects of remembrance” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (N.S) 12, 817-836 (2006)p. 827
  52. ↑ Simon Harrison “Skull Trophies of the Pacific War: transgressive objects of remembrance” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (N.S) 12, 817-836 (2006) p.827
  53. ↑ Simon Harrison “Skull Trophies of the Pacific War: transgressive objects of remembrance” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (N.S) 12, 817-836 (2006) p.828
  54. ↑ a b James J. Weingartner “Trophies of War: U.S. Troops and the Mutilation of Japanese War Dead, 1941 – 1945” Pacific Historical Review (1992) p.59
  55. ↑ Shimoda et al. v. The State, Tokyo District Court, 7 December 1963
  56. ↑ Falk, Richard A. (15 de febrero de 1965). «The Claimants of Hiroshima». The Nation.  reprinted in Richard A. Falk, Saul H. Mendlovitz eds., ed. (1966). «The Shimoda Case: Challenge and Response». The Strategy of World Order. Volume: 1. New York: World Law Fund. pp. 307-13. 
  57. ↑ International Review of the Red Cross no 323, p.347-363 The Law of Air Warfare (1998)
  58. ↑ John Bolton The Risks and Weaknesses of the International Criminal Court from America's Perspective, (page 4) Law and Contemporary Problems January 2001, while he was Undersecretary of State for Arms Control and International Security.
  59. ↑ Schrijvers, Peter (2002). The GI War Against Japan. New York City: New York University Press. p. 212. ISBN 0814798160. 
  60. ↑ Tanaka, Toshiyuki. Japan's Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution During World War II, Routledge, 2003, p.111. ISBN 0203302753
  61. ↑ Molasky, Michael S., The American Occupation of Japan and Okinawa: Literature and Memory, p. 16 .
  62. ↑ Molasky, Michael S.; Rabson, Steve, Southern Exposure: Modern Japanese Literature from Okinawa, p. 22 .
  63. ↑ Sheehan, Susan D; Elizabeth, Laura; Selden, Hein Mark, Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power, p. 18 .
  64. ↑ a b James D. Morrow. The Institutional Features of the Prisoners of War Treaties, Center for Political Studies at The University of Michigan
  65. ↑ Herbert Bix, 2000,Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan HarperCollins. (ISBN 0-06-019314-X) p. 360
  66. ↑ a b c d e f Niall Ferguson, "Prisoner Taking and Prisoner Killing in the Age of Total War: Towards a Political Economy of Military Defeat" War in History 2004 11 (2) 148–192 pg. 186 (Table 4)
  67. ↑ Yuki Tanaka, 1996,Hidden Horrors (Westview Press) (ISBN 0-81-332718-0) pp. 2-3.
  68. ↑ James D. Morrow The Institutional Features of the Prisoners of War Treaties, Center for Political Studies at The University of Michigan, p. 22

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