Usuario:Sageo/Anarquismo

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[a] de anarquía, versión del símbolo anarquista sobre una bandera negra, color político del anarquismo.

El anarquismo es aquella filosofía política que abarca teorías y actitudes que consideran al Estado, entendido como gobierno obligatorio, innecesario, dañino e indeseable, y que promueve la eliminación del Estado o anarquía.[1]​[2]​ Anarquistas específicos pueden tener criterios adicionales acerca de lo que constituye al anarquismo, y por lo general mantienen desacuerdos con otros anarquistas acerca de la interpretación de estos criterios. De acuerdo con el libro The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, "no existe posición alguna que defina lo que todos los anarquistas sostienen, y aquellos que se consideran anarquistas en el mejor de los casos comparten un cierto parentezco de familia."[3]​

Hay muchos tipos y tradiciones del anarquismo, generalmente agrupados en anarquismo socialista y anarquismo individualista o clasificaciones de dos lados similares,[4]​ no todas ellos son mutuamente exclusivas.[5]​[6]​[7]​ El anarquismo es frecuentemente considerado como una ideología de extrema izquierda,[8]​[9]​[10]​ y la mayor parte de la economía anarquista, así como la filosofía legal anarquista, refleja varias interpretaciones antiestatistas del comunismo, colectivismo, sindicalismo o de la economía participativa; sin embargo, el anarquismo ha incluido siempre una tendencia individualista económica y legal,. con lo cual respalda una economía de libre mercado anarquista y la propiedad privada (como el mutualismo clásico o el actual anarcocapitalismo y el agorismo)..[11]​[12]​ Otros, tales como los panarquistas y los anarquistas sin adjetivos, no están ni a favor ni en contra ante cualquier particular forma de organización mientras que esta no sea obligatoria. Algunas escuelas anarquistas difieren fundamental, del respaldo que brindan a temas que van desde el individualismo extremo hasta el completo colectivismo.[2]​ La tendencia central del anarquismo como movimiento social está representada por el anarcocomunismo, siendo el anarcoindividualismo, por sobre todo, un fenómeno filosófico/literario.[13]​ Algunos anarquistas se oponen fundamental a todas las formas de coerción, apoyando la autodefensa o la no-violencia, mientras que otros han apoyado el uso de algunas medidas coactivas, que incluyen la revolución violenta y el terrorismo, en la objetivo a la anarquía.[14]​

El término anarquismo deriva del griego ἀναρχος, anarchos, que significa "sin dirigente",[15]​[16]​ lo cual está formado por el prefijo ἀν- (an-, "sin") + ἄρχή (archê, "soberanía, reino, magistratura")[17]​ + -ισμός (-ismos, de un tema -ιζειν, -izein). Existe cierta ambigüedad con el uso de los términos "libertarismo" y "libertario" en escritos acerca del anarquismo. Desde los años 1890 en Francia,[18]​ el término "libertarismo" fue a menudo utilizado como sinónimo de anarquismo, y siguió utilizandose con tal sentido hasta los años 1950 en los Estados Unidos;[19]​ aunque su uso como sinónimo aun es común fuera de EUA.[20]​ Por consiguiente, el "socialismo libertario"; (un término que también incluye filosofías no-anarquista) se utiliza a veces como sinónimo para el anarquismo socialista,[21]​[22]​ para delinearlo de "libertarismo individualista" (anarquismo individualista). Por otra parte, algunos utilizan el "libertarismo" para referirse únicamente a la filosofía individualista de mercado, refiriendose al anarquismo de mercado como "anarquismo libertario."[23]​[24]​

Orígenes[editar]

Varios temas reclamados como anarquistas pueden ser encontrados en los trabajos de los sabios taoístas Laozi[25]​ y Zhuangzi. De este último se ha traducido, "There has been such a thing as letting mankind alone; there has never been such a thing as governing mankind [with success]," and "Un pequeño ladrón es puesto en la cárcel. Un gran bandido se convierte en gobernante de un Estado."[26]​ Diógenes de Sínope y los cínicos, y su contemporáneo Zenón de Citium, fundador del estoicismo, también presentó temas similares.[25]​[27]​

El anarquismo moderno, no obstante, surgió del pensamiento secular y religioso de la Ilustración, particularmente de los argumentos de Jean-Jacques Rousseau de la centralidad moral de la libertad.[28]​Aunque para el cambio al siglo 19 el término "anarquista" tuvo una connotación enteramente positiva,[29]​ entró primeramente al lenguaje de Inglaterra en 1642 durante la Guerra Civil Inglesa como un término peyorativo usado por los realista para condenar a aquellos que fomentaban el desorden.[29]​ Para el tiempo de la Revolución Francesa algunos, como los Enragés, empezaron a usar el término positivamente,[30]​ en oposición a la centralización jacobina del poder, identificando un "gobierno revolucionario" como un oxímoron.[29]​ De este clima político William Godwin desarrolló lo que varios consideran la primera expresión del pensamiento anarquista moderno.[31]​ Godwin fue, de acuerdo a Piotr Kropotkin, "el primero en formular los conceptos políticos y económicos del anarquismo moderno, aunque no dio ese nombre a las ideas desarrolladas en su trabajo", [25]​ mientas Godwin adjudicó sus ideas anarquistas a un temprano Edmund Burke.[32]​ En vez de esto, Benjamin Tucker acreditó a Josiah Warren, un estadounidense que promocionó comunidades voluntarias sin Estado donde todos los bienes y servicios eran privados, de ser "el primer hombre en exponer y formular la doctrina hoy conocida como Anarquismo."[33]​

El primero en describirse a sí mismo como anarquista fue Pierre-Joseph Proudhon,[29]​ lo que llevó a varios a denominarlo el fundador de la teoría anarquista moderna.[34]​ Proudhon propuso el orden espontáneo, donde la organización emerge sin autoridad central, una "anarquía positiva" donde el el orden surge cuando cada uno hace "lo que uno y sólo uno desea"[35]​ y donde las "transacciones comerciales por sí solas producen el orden social."[36]​ Al igual que Godwin, Proudhon se opuso a la acción revolucionaria violenta. El vio la anarquía como "una forma de gobierno o de constitución en la que la conciencia pública y privada, formada a través del desarrollo de la ciencia y la ley, por sí sola es suficiente para mantener el orden y garantizar todas las libertades. En ella, como consecuencia, las instituciones de la policía, los métodos preventivos y represivos, la burocracia, los impuestos, etc, se reducen al mínimo. En ella, sobre todo, las formas de la monarquía y la intensidad de la centralización desaparecerá para ser sustituido por instituciones federales y un patrón de vida basada en la comuna."[37]​ Por "comuna", Proudhon identifica un autogobierno local o de acuerdo a la traducción literal, "municipalidad", y no un acuerdo comunista.[38]​ La famosa declaración de Proudhon "¡La propiedad es robo!" junto con su declaración menos famosa de "¡La propiedad es libertad!",[39]​[40]​ inspiraron diferentes modelos económicos anarquistas a través de los siglos 19 y 20.

Escuelas de pensamiento anarquistas[editar]

Artículo principal: Escuelas anarquistas

Las escuelas anarquistas han sido generalmente agrupadas en dos principales tradiciones históricas, la individualista y la colectivista, las cuales tienen varias diferencias en sus orígenes, valores defendidos, y su evolución.[41]​[2]​[4]​ La rama individualista del anarquismo hace énfasis en la libertad negativa, como por ejemplo la oposición al Estado o a cualquier control social que esté sobre el individuo, mientras que aquellos de la rama colectivista enfatizan en la libertad positiva para alcanzar el potencial de cada individuo y sostienen que los seres humanos tienen necesidades que la sociedad debe satisfacer, "reconociendo igualdad de garantías de acceso a beneficios adquiridos por derecho propio o por previo acuerdo legal".[42]​ En el sentido cronológico y teórico existen escuelas anarquistas clásicas, que fueron creadas a lo largo del siglo XIX, y post-clásicas, como aquellas que aparecieron a mediados del siglo XX y después.

William Godwin, usualmente considerado como un anarquista individualista, es a menudo apreciado por producir la primera expresión filosófica del anarquismo.

Anarquismo individualista[editar]

Artículo principal: Anarquismo individualista

El anarquismo individualista abarca muchas tradiciones[43]​ las cuales sostienen que "la conciencia individual y la búsqueda del interés propio no se deben obligar por ningún cuerpo colectivo o autoridad pública."[44]​ El anarquismo individualista sostiene que la propiedad debe mantenerse como propiedad privada, a diferencia de la rama colectivista la cual aboga que sea propiedad común.[45]​ El anarquismo individualista ha sido propugnado por personajes como Max Stirner, William Godwin,[46]​ Henry David Thoreau,[47]​ Josiah Warren, Albert Jay Nock[48]​ y Murray Rothbard.[49]​[50]​[51]​

William Godwin[editar]

En 1793, Godwin, quien es citado regularmente como el primer anarquista, escribió su obra Justicia política (en inglés:"Political Justice"), el cual es considerado por muchos como la primera expresión del anarquismo.[31]​[52]​ Godwin, un anarquista filosófico, se opuso a la acción revolucionaria y vió al gobierno limitado como un "mal necesario" que llegaría a convertirse cada vez más en irrelevante e impotente por la extensión gradual del conocimiento.[53]​ Godwin abogó por el individualismo extremo, proponiendo que toda cooperación en el trabajo esté eliminada en la teoría de que ésta sería lo más conducente al bien general.[54]​[55]​ Godwin fue un utilitarista que creía que no todos los individuos tenían el mismo valor, ya que algunos son "de mayor mérito e importancia que otros", dependiendo de nuestra utilidad en generar el bien social. Por lo tanto él no creía en la igualdad de derechos, sino en que la vida de las personas que deben ser favorecidas sean lo más conducente al bien general.[55]​ Godwin se oponía a los gobiernos y a toda autoridad porque infringen el derecho individual al juicio individual y privado. Este aspecto de la filosofía de Godwin, con excepción de su faceta utilitarista, fue posteriormente desarrollada posteriormente por Stirner.[56]​

Max Stirner, filósofo del siglo XIX, usualmente considerado un prominente y temprano anarquista individualista (bosquejo de Friedrich Engels).

Egoísmo[editar]

Artículo principal: Egoísmo

La forma más extrema[57]​ del anarquismo individualista, llamada "egoismo",[58]​ fue expuesta por uno de los primeros y mejor conocidos proponentes del anarquismo individualista, Max Stirner. El libro de Stirner "El único y su propiedad", publicado en 1844, es un texto fundamental de la filosofía.[59]​ De acuerdo al cocepto de Stirner, la única limitación en el individuo es su poder para obtener lo que él desea,[60]​ sin ciudado de Dios, el estado, o reglas morales.[61]​ Para Stirner, los derechos eran una materialización de la mente, y sostenía que la sociedad no existe pero "los individuos eran su realidad".[62]​ Por "propiedad" él no se refiere únicamente a objetos sino a otras personas también.[63]​ Stirner abogaba por la autoafirmación y previó las "asociaciones de egoístas", donde el respecto por crueldad unió a gente.[46]​ Incluso el asesinato es permisible "si es lo correcto para mí".[64]​ Stirner vió al estado como ilegítimo pero no creía que los individuos tenían el deber de eliminarlo ni recomendaba el tratar de hacerlo, aunque, sustentaba que debían desatender al estado cuando éste haga conflicto con sus desiciones autónomas y que se apeguen al estado cuando éste sea favorable a los intereses personales de cada quién.[65]​ Sin embargoo, mientras que pensaba que no existía el deber de eliminar al estado, Stirner pensó que éste eventualmente colapsaría como resultado de la extensión del egoísmo.[66]​

En Rusia, el anarquismo individualista inspirado por Stirner combinado con una apreciación por Friedrich Nietzsche atrajo a una pequeña cantidad de seguidores conformados por artistas bohemios e intelectuales tal como Lev Chernyi, así como también a varios solitarios quienes encontraron una forma de autoexpresión en el crímen y la violencia.[67]​ Estos se rehusaron a organizarse, creyendo que únicamente desorganizados estarían a salvo de coerción y dominación, creyendo que con ello mantendrían sus ideales anarquistas.[68]​ Este tipo de anarquismo individualista inspiró a la anarcofeminista Emma Goldman.[67]​ A pesar de que el egoísmo de Stirner es individualista, ha tenido influencias sobre varios anarcocomunistas.[69]​

Lysander Spooner, uno de los más grandes exponentes del clásico anarquismo estadounidense. Apoyó la ley natural y la economía de mercado.

La tradición norteamericana[editar]

Otra forma de anarquismo individualista fue abogada por los "anarquistas de Boston",[67]​ los individualistas estadounidenses que apoyaron la propiedad privada intercambiable en un mercado libre.[70]​ Ellos abogaron por la protección de la libertad y la propiedad por parte de contratistas privados,[71]​ y respaldaron el intercambio de trabajo por salario.[72]​ No tenían problemas con que "un individuo emplee a otro" o que "lo dirija" en su trabajo, pero demandaban que "todas las oportunidades naturales indispensables para la producción de abundancia sean accesibles a todos en un plano de igualdad y se suprima aquellos monopolios que provienen de privilegios especiales creados por la ley."[73]​ Pensaban que el capitalismo de Estado monopólico (definido como un monopolio auspiciado por el Estado)[74]​ impedía al trabajo ser remunerado completamente. Incluso entre los individualistas norteamericanos decimonónicos, no había una doctrina monolítica, estando en desacuerdo unos frente a otros en varios temas incluyendo los derechos de propiedad intelectual, la posesión versus la propiedad sobre la tierra.[75]​[76]​[77]​ Una de las principales fisuras se produjo más tarde en el siglo 19 cuando Tucker y algunos otros abandonaron el derecho natural y se convirtieron a un "egoísmo" modelado sobre la filosofía de Max Stirner.[76]​ Varios "anarquistas de Boston", como Tucker, se identificaban a sí mismos como "socialistas" –un término que en esos tiempos denotaba un concepto amplio– que para él significaba un compromiso para resolver "el problema laboral" mediante la reforma económica radical.[78]​ Con el cambio al siglo 20, el apogeo del anarquismo individualista había pasado,[79]​ aunque posteriormente se reavivó con modificaciones por Murray Rothbard y los anarcocapitalistas en la mitad del siglo 20, como una corriente del más amplio movimiento liberal-libertario.[67]​[80]​


Mutualismo[editar]

Artículo principal: Mutualismo (economía)

El mutualismo empezó en los movimientos obreros ingleses y franceses del siglo XVIII antes de tomar una forma anarquista asociada con Pierre-Joseph Proudhon en Francia y otros en los Estados Unidos.[81]​ Las ideas de Proudhon fueron presentadas por Charles A. Dana,[82]​ a los anarquistas individualistas en los Estados Unidos, entre los cuales se incluyen a Benjamin Tucker y a William Batchelder Greene.[83]​

El anarquismo mutualista se refiere a reciprocidad, libre asociación, contrato voluntario, federación, y reformas tanto monetarias como de crédito. De acuerdo con Greene, en el sistema mutualista cada trabajador recibirá "paga justa y exacta por su trabajo; siendo el servicio equivalente en costo intercambiable con otro servicio equivalente en costo, sin ganancias o descuentos".[84]​ El mutualismo ha sido retrospectívamente caracterizado ciertas veces por ser un individualismo económico,[85]​ y otras veces por estar ideológicamente situado entre formas de anarquismo individualistas y colectivistas.[86]​ Proudhon primero especificó su meta como una "tercera forma de sociedad, la síntesis del comunismo y de la propiedad".[87]​

Anarquismo socialista[editar]

Artículo principal: Anarquismo socialista

El anarquismo socialista es una de las dos diversas amplias categorías del anarquismo, la otra categoría que es anarquismo del individualista. El término anarquismo socialista es frecuentemente usado para identificar las formas comunitarias de anarquismo que acentúan la cooperación y la ayuda mutua. El anarquismo socialista incluye anarcocolectivismo, anarcocomunismo, anarcosindicalismo, ecología social y en algunas ocasiones al mutualismo.

Anarquismo colectivista[editar]

Artículo principal: Anarquismo colectivista

Collectivist anarchism, also referred to as revolutionary socialism or a form of such[88]​[89]​, is a revolutionary form of anarchism, commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin and Johann Most.[90]​[91]​ It is a specific tendency, not to be confused with the broad category sometimes called collectivist or communitarian anarchism.[92]​ Unlike mutualists, collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivized. This was to be achieved through violent revolution, first starting with a small cohesive group through acts of violence, or "propaganda by the deed," which would inspire the workers as a whole to revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production.[90]​ However, collectivization was not to be extended to the distribution of income, as workers would be paid according to time worked, rather than receiving goods being distributed "according to need" as in anarcho-communism. This position was criticised by later anarcho-communists as effectively "uphold[ing] the wages system".[93]​ Anarchist communist and collectivist ideas were not mutually exclusive; although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labor, some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need.[94]​ Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism but opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat, despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society.[95]​

Anarcho-communist Peter Kropotkin believed that in anarchy, workers would spontaneously self-organize to produce goods in common for all society.

Anarquismo comunista[editar]

Artículo principal: Anarquismo comunista

Anarchist communists propose that the freest form of social organisation would be a society composed of self-governing communes with collective use of the means of production, organized by direct democracy, and related to other communes through federation.[96]​ However, some anarchist communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and favor consensus democracy.[97]​

In anarchist communism, as money would be abolished, individuals would not receive direct compensation for labour (through sharing of profits or payment) but would have free access to the resources and surplus of the commune.[98]​ According to anarchist communist Peter Kropotkin and later Murray Bookchin, the members of such a society would spontaneously perform all necessary labour because they would recognize the benefits of communal enterprise and mutual aid.[99]​ Kropotkin believed that private property was one of the causes of oppression and exploitation and called for its abolition,[100]​[101]​ advocating instead common ownership.[100]​ Kropotkin said that "houses, fields, and factories will no longer be private property, and that they will belong to the commune or the nation and money, wages, and trade would be abolished."[102]​ Kropotkin's work Mutual Aid criticized social Darwinism, arguing that cooperation is more natural than competition. Conquest of Bread was essentially a handbook on the organization of a society after the social revolution.

In response to those criticizing Kropotkin for supporting expropriation of homes and means of production from those who did not wish to take part in anarcho-communism, he replied that if someone did not want to join the commune they would be left alone as long as they are a "peasant who is in possession of just the amount of land he can cultivate," or "a family inhabiting a house which affords them just enough space... considered necessary for that number of people" or an artisan "working with their own tools or handloom."[103]​ arguing that "[t]he landlord owes his riches to the poverty of the peasants, and the wealth of the capitalist comes from the same source."[103]​

The status of anarchist communism within anarchism is disputed, because most individualist anarchists consider communitarianism incompatible with political freedom.[104]​ However, anarcho-communism does not always have a communitarian philosophy, Some forms of anarchist communism are egoist,[105]​ and are very influenced by radical individualist philosophy, believing that anarcho-communism does not require a communitarian nature at all. Anarchist communist Emma Goldman blended the philosophies of both Max Stirner and Kropotkin in her own.[106]​

Platformism is an anarchist communist tendency in the tradition of Nestor Makhno, who argued for the "vital need of an organization which, having attracted most of the participants in the anarchist movement, would establish a common tactical and political line for anarchism and thereby serve as a guide for the whole movement."[107]​

Anarcosindicalismo[editar]

Artículo principal: Anarcosindicalismo
A common Anarcho-Syndicalist flag.

In the early 20th century, anarcho-syndicalism arose as a distinct school of thought within anarchism.[108]​ With greater focus on the labour movement than previous forms of anarchism, syndicalism posits radical trade unions as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society, democratically self-managed by the workers.

Anarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the wage system and private ownership of the means of production, which they believe lead to class divisions. Important principles include workers' solidarity, direct action (such as general strikes and workplace recuperations), and workers' self-management. This is compatible with other branches of anarchism, and anarcho-syndicalists often subscribe to anarchist communist or collectivist anarchist economic systems.[109]​ Its advocates propose labour organization as a means to create the foundations of a trade union centered anarchist society within the current system and bring about social revolution. An early leading anarcho-syndicalist thinker was Rudolf Rocker, whose 1938 pamphlet Anarchosyndicalism outlined a view of the movement's origin, aims and importance to the future of labour.[109]​[110]​

Although more often associated with labor struggles of the early 20th century (particularly in France and Spain), many syndicalist organizations are active today, united across national borders by membership in the International Workers Association, including the Sveriges Arbetares Centralorganisation (SAC) in Sweden, the Unione Sindacale Italiana (USI) in Italia, the CNT and the CGT in Spain, the Workers' Solidarity Movement (WSM) of Ireland, and the Industrial Workers of the World in the United States.

Anarquismo sin adjetivos[editar]

Artículo principal: Anarquismo sin adjetivos

"Anarchism without adjectives", in the words of historian George Richard Esenwein, "referred to an unhyphenated form of anarchism, that is, a doctrine without any qualifying labels such as communist, collectivist, mutualist, or individualist. For others,…[it] was simply understood as an attitude that tolerated the coexistence of different anarchist schools."[111]​ "Anarchism without adjectives" emphasizes harmony among various anarchist factions and attempts to unite them around their shared anti-authoritarian beliefs. The position was first adopted in 1889 by Fernando Tarrida del Mármol as a call for toleration, after being troubled by the "bitter debates" among the different anarchist movements.[112]​ Voltairine de Cleyre,[113]​ Errico Malatesta,[114]​ and Fred Woodworth are noteworthy exponents of the view.[115]​

Escuelas post-clásicas[editar]

Archivo:Bey hakim.jpg
Temporary Autonomous Zone theorist Hakim Bey is an influential figure in post-leftist anarchist circles.

El anarquismo continúa generando varias filosofías y movimientos eclécticos y sincréticos; a partir del reavivamiento del anarquismo en EE.UU. in los años 1960,[116]​ un número de nuevos movimientos y escuelas han surgido. El anarcocapitalismo desarrollado a partir del liberalismo libertario radical anti-Estado como una forma de anarquismo individualista rejuvenecido, se basa en ideas como como la escuela austríaca, el análisis económico del derecho o la teoría de la elección pública;[117]​ mientras que los florecientes movimientos feminista y ecologista también produjeron vástagos anarquistas.

El anarquismo postizquierdista es un tendencia que busca distanciarse a sí misma de la "izquierda" tradicional y escapar de los límites de la "ideología" en general. Los post-izquierdistas argumentan que el anarquismo se ha debilitado por su larga atadura a movimientos "izquierdistas" contrarios, causas de un solo tema y por los llamados a una síntesis del pensamiento anarquista, (and a specifically anti-authoritarian revolutionary movement outside the leftist milieu.) Postanarquismo es un intento teórico hacia una síntesis de la teoría anarquista clásica y el pensamiento postestructuralista desarrollado por Saul Newman y asociado a pensadores como Todd May, Gilles Deleuze y Félix Guattari. Se basa en un amplio rango de ideas como el posmodernismo, el marxismo autónomo, la anarquía postizquierda, el situacionismo y el postcolonialismo.

Otra reciente forma de anarquismo crítica con los movimientos anarquistas formales es el anarquismo insurreccionalista, el cual aboga por la organización informal y la resistencia activa al Estado; sus proponentes incluyen a Wolfi Landstreicher y Alfredo M. Bonanno.

Murray Rothbard (1926–1995), 20th century progenitor of anarcho-capitalism who asserted that "capitalism is the fullest expression of anarchism, and anarchism is the fullest expression of capitalism."[118]​

Anarcocapitalismo[editar]

Artículos principales: Anarcho-capitalism y Market anarchism.

Anarcho-capitalism (or "free market anarchism")[119]​ is "based on a belief in the freedom to own private property, a rejection of any form of governmental authority or intervention, and the upholding of the competitive free market as the main mechanism for social interaction."[120]​ Because of the historically anti-capitalist nature of much of anarchist thought, the status of anarcho-capitalism within anarchism is disputed particularly by communist anarchists.[121]​ Anarcho-capitalists distinguish between free market capitalism – peaceful voluntary exchange[122]​ – from "state capitalism" which Murray Rothbard defined as a collusive partnership between big business and government that uses coercion to subvert the free market.[123]​ Whether in its natural rights-based, contractarian, or utilitarian formulations, anarcho-capitalism has a theory of legitimacy that supports private property as long as it was obtained by labor, trade, or gift.[124]​ In an anarcho-capitalist society, its proponents hold, voluntary market processes would result in the provision of social institutions such as law enforcement, defence and infrastructure by competing for-profit firms, charities or voluntary associations rather than the state.[125]​ In Rothbardian anarcho-capitalism, law (the non-aggression principle) is enforced by the market but not created by it, while according to David D. Friedman's utilitarian version, the law itself is produced by the market.

A yellow and black flag is often used to represent Anarcho-capitalism.

While the term "anarcho-capitalism" was coined by Rothbard and its origin is attributed to 1960s Estados Unidos, some historians, including Rothbard himself, trace the school as far back as the mid-19th century to market theorists such as Gustave de Molinari.[126]​[127]​ Anarcho-capitalism has drawn influence from pro-market theorists such as Molinari, Frédéric Bastiat, and Robert Nozick, as well as American individualist thinkers such as Benjamin Tucker and Lysander Spooner.[128]​[129]​ Considered a form of individualist anarchism,[130]​ it differs from the individualism of the "Boston anarchists" of the 19th century in its rejection of the labor theory of value (and its normative implications) in favor of the neoclassical or Austrian School marginalist view. Anarcho-capitalist ideas have in turn contributed to the development of agorism,[131]​ autarchism, voluntaryism,[132]​ and crypto-anarchism.[133]​ Some institutes very related to capitalist anarchism are Center for Libertarian Studies and Ludwig von Mises Institute.

Anarcofeminismo[editar]

Artículo principal: Anarcha-feminism
A purple and black flag is often used to represent Anarcha-feminism.

Anarcha-feminism is a synthesis of radical feminism and anarchism that views patriarchy (male domination over women) as a fundamental manifestation of compulsory government – to which anarchists are opposed. Anarcha-feminism was inspired in the late 19th century by the writings of early feminist anarchists such as Lucy Parsons, Emma Goldman and Voltairine de Cleyre, and even Dora Marsden. Anarcha-feminists, like other radical feminists, criticize and advocate the abolition of traditional conceptions of family, education and gender roles.

Many anarcha-feminists are especially critical of marriage. For instance, Emma Goldman has argued that marriage is a purely economic arrangement and that "…[woman] pays for it with her name, her privacy, her self-respect, her very life."[134]​ Anarcha-feminists view patriarchy as a fundamental problem in society and believe that the feminist struggle against sexism and patriarchy is an essential component of the anarchist struggle against the state and capitalism. Susan Brown expressed the sentiment that "as anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist."[135]​ There have been several male anarcha-feminists, such as the Anarcho-communist Joseph Déjacque who opposed Proudhon's anti-feminist views."[136]​ Recently, Wendy McElroy has defined a position (she describes it as "ifeminism" or "individualist feminism") that combines feminism with anarcho-capitalism or libertarianism, arguing that a pro-capitalist, anti-state position implies equal rights and empowerment for women.[137]​ Individualist anarchist feminism has grown from the US-based individualist anarchism movement.

Anarquismo verde[editar]

Artículo principal: Anarquismo verde
Bandera verde y negra del anarquismo verde.

El anarquismo verde es una escuela de pensamiento dentro del anarquismo que pone énfasis en los temas medioambientales. Corrientes contemporáneas importantes son la ecología social y el anarcoprimitivismo. Algunos proponentes del anarquismo verde y del primitivismo consideran a Fredy Perlman como el progenitor moderno de sus perspectivas. Escritores contemporáneos notables que exponen el anarquismo verde incluyen a los tecno-positivos Murray Bookchin, Janet Biehl, Daniel Chodorkoff, el antropólogo Brian Morris, y gente alrededor del Institute for Social Ecology; aquellos críticos de la tecnología como Derrick Jensen, George Draffan, and John Zerzan; y otros que incluyen a Alan Carter,[138]​ y Stewart Davidson [139]​

Los ecologistas sociales, considerados también una forma de anarquistas socialistas, a menudo critican a las principales corrientes del anarquismo por su enfoque y sus debates en torno a la política y la economía, en vez de enfocarse en el ecosistema (humano y ambiental) como ellos lo hacen, esta teoría promueve el municipalismo libertario. Los anarcoprimitivistas a menudo critican al anarquismo del mainstream por su apoyo a la civilización y la tecnología moderna, las cuales ellos creen son inherentemente basadas en la dominación y la explotación. Por el contrario abogan por el proceso de re-asilvestramiento o reconectarse con el ambiente natural. Veganarquismo es la filosofía política del veganismo (más específicamente la liberación animal) y el anarquismo verde.[140]​ Esto incluye la visualización del Estado como innecesario y perjudicial para humanos y animales, mientras se practica una dieta vegana.[140]​

Como un movimiento social[editar]

El anarquismo como un movimiento social ha sufrido fluctuaciones en su popularidad. Su período clásico, que los estudiosos demarcan de 1860 a 1939, está asociado con los movimientos obreros del siglo 19 y el combate contra el fascismo de la era de la Guerra Civil Española.[141]​ Además, los anarquistas fueron especialmente activos en la abolición de la esclavitud, y han participado activamente en el movimiento obrero, los derechos civiles, la liberación femenina, tanto anti-capitalismo como pro-capitalismo[12]​ (con diferentes definiciones de capitalismo), el movimiento anti-guerra, derechos LGBT, tanto anti-globalización como pro-globalización (con diferentes definiciones de globalización), la resistencia fiscal, y otras formas de activismo anarquista.

Primera Internacional[editar]

Collectivist anarchist Mikhail Bakunin opposed the Marxist aim of dictatorship of the proletariat in favour of universal rebellion, and allied himself with the federalists in the First International before his expulsion by the Marxists.[29]​

In Europe, harsh reaction followed the revolutions of 1848, wherein ten countries experienced brief or long-term social upheaval as groups carried out nationalist revolutions. After most of these attempts at systematic change ended in failure, conservative elements took advantage of the divided groups of socialists, anarchists, liberals, and nationalists, to prevent further revolt.[142]​ In 1864 the International Workingmen's Association (sometimes called the "First International") united diverse revolutionary currents including French followers of Proudhon,[143]​ Blanquists, Philadelphes, English trade unionists, socialists and social democrats. Due to its links to active workers' movements, the International became a significant organization. Karl Marx became a leading figure in the International and a member of its General Council. Proudhon's followers, the mutualists, opposed Marx's state socialism, advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings.[144]​[145]​

In 1868, following their unsuccessful participation in the League of Peace and Freedom (LPF), Mikhail Bakunin and his associates joined the First International – which had decided not to get involved with the LPF. They allied themselves with the federalist socialist sections of the International, who advocated the revolutionary overthrow of the state and the collectivization of property. At first, the collectivists worked with the Marxists to push the First International in a more revolutionary socialist direction. Subsequently, the International became polarized into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads.[146]​ Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as centralist and predicted that, if a Marxist party came to power, its leaders would simply take the place of the ruling class they had fought against.[147]​[148]​ In 1872, the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the Hague Congress, where Bakunin and James Guillaume were expelled from the International and its headquarters were transferred to New York. In response, the federalist sections formed their own International at the St. Imier Congress, adopting a revolutionary anarchist program.[149]​

Trabajo organizado[editar]

Artículos principales: Anarcosindicalismo, Anarquismo en España y Revolución social española de 1936.

The anti-authoritarian sections of the First International were the precursors of the anarcho-syndicalists, seeking to "replace the privilege and authority of the State" with the "free and spontaneous organization of labor."[150]​ In 1886, the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions (FOTLU) of the United States and Canada unanimously set 1 May 1886, as the date by which the eight-hour work day would become standard.[151]​ In response, unions across America prepared a general strike in support of the event.[152]​ Upon 3 May, in Chicago, a fight broke out when replacement workers attempted to cross the picket line. Police intervention led to the deaths of four men, enraging the workers of the city. The next day, 4 May, anarchists staged a rally at Chicago's Haymarket Square.[153]​ A bomb was thrown by an unknown party near the conclusion of the rally, killing an officer.[154]​ In the ensuing panic, police opened fire on the crowd and each other.[155]​ Seven police officers and at least four workers were killed.[156]​ Eight anarchists directly and indirectly related to the organizers of the rally were arrested and charged with the murder of the deceased officer. The men became international political celebrities among the labor movement. Four of the men were executed and a fifth committed suicide prior to his own execution. The incident became known as the Haymarket affair, and was a setback for the labor movement and the struggle for the eight hour day. In 1890 a second attempt, this time international in scope, to organize for the eight hour day was made. The event also had the secondary purpose of memorializing workers killed as a result of the Haymarket affair.[157]​ The celebration of International Workers' Day on May Day became an annual event the following year.

In 1907, the International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam gathered delegates from 14 different countries, among which important figures of the anarchist movement, including Errico Malatesta, Pierre Monatte, Luigi Fabbri, Benoît Broutchoux, Emma Goldman, Rudolf Rocker, Christiaan Cornelissen, etc. Various themes were treated during the Congress, in particular concerning the organisation of the anarchist movement, popular education issues, the general strike or antimilitarism. A central debate concerned the relation between anarchism and syndicalism (or trade unionism). Malatesta and Monatte in particular opposed themselves on this issue, as the latter thought that syndicalism was revolutionary and would create the conditions of a social revolution, while Malatesta did not consider syndicalism by itself sufficient.[158]​ Malatesta thought that trade-unions were reformist, and could even be, at times, conservative. Along with Cornelissen, he cited as example US trade-unions, where trade-unions composed of qualified workers sometimes opposed themselves to non-qualified workers in order to defend their relatively privileged position.

The Spanish Workers Federation in 1881 was the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement; anarchist trade union federations were of special importance in Spain. The most successful was the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (National Confederation of Labour: CNT), founded in 1910. Before the 1940s, the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics and played a major role in the Spanish Civil War. The CNT was affiliated with the International Workers Association, a federation of anarcho-syndicalist trade unions founded in 1922, with delegates representing two million workers from 15 countries in Europe and Latin America. The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the Confederación General del Trabajo (CGT) and the CNT. CGT membership was estimated to be around 100,000 for the year 2003.[159]​ Other active syndicalist movements include the US Workers Solidarity Alliance and the UK Solidarity Federation. The revolutionary industrial unionist Industrial Workers of the World, claiming 2,000 paying members, and the International Workers Association, an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the First International, also remain active.

Revolución rusa[editar]

Artículos principales: Anarquismo en Rusia y Revolución rusa de 1917.
Anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman opposed Bolshevik consolidation of power following the Russian Revolution (1917).

Anarchists participated alongside the Bolsheviks in both February and October revolutions, many anarchists initially supporting the Bolshevik coup. However, the Bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, a conflict that culminated in the 1921 Kronstadt rebellion. Anarchists in central Russia were either imprisoned, driven underground or joined the victorious Bolsheviks. In the Ukraine, anarchists fought in the civil war against Whites and then the Bolsheviks as part of the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine led by Nestor Makhno, who attempted to establish an anarchist society in the region for a number of months.

Expelled American anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising, before they left Russia. Both wrote accounts of their experiences in Russia, criticizing the amount of control the Bolsheviks exercised. For them, Bakunin's predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule that the rulers of the new "socialist” Marxist state would become a new elite[147]​ had proved all too true.

The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example; Communist parties grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the US, for example, certain members of the major syndicalist movements of the CGT and IWW left the organizations and joined the Communist International.

In Paris, the Dielo Truda group of Russian anarchist exiles, which included Nestor Makhno, concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, called the Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft),[107]​ was supported. Platformist groups active today include the Workers Solidarity Movement in Ireland and the North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists of North America.

Anti-fascist Maquis, who resisted Nazi and Francoist rule in Europe.

Lucha contra el fascismo[editar]

Artículo principal: Antifascismo
Véanse también: Anarquismo en Italia, Anarquismo en Francia y Anarquismo en España.

In the 1920s and 1930s, the rise of fascism in Europe transformed anarchism's conflict with the state. Italy saw the first struggles between anarchists and fascists. Italian anarchists played a key role in the anti-fascist organisation Arditi del Popolo, which was strongest in areas with anarchist traditions and marked up numerous successful victories, including repelling Blackshirts in the anarchist stronghold of Parma in August 1922.[160]​ In France, where the far right leagues came close to insurrection in the February 1934 riots, anarchists divided over a united front policy.[161]​

In Spain, the CNT initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the former ruling class responded with an attempted coup causing the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain where they collectivized the land. But even before the fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the Stalinists, who controlled the distribution of military aid to the Republican cause from the Soviet Union. According to George Orwell and other foreign observers, Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both dissident Marxists and anarchists.

Internal issues and debates[editar]

Artículo principal: Issues in anarchism

Anarchism is a philosophy which embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies and schools of thought; as such, disagreement over questions of values, ideology and tactics is common. The compatibility of capitalism,[3]​ nationalism and religion with anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys a complex relationship with ideologies such as Marxism, communism and capitalism. Anarchists may be motivated by humanism, divine authority, enlightened self-interest or any number of alternative ethical doctrines.

Phenomena such as civilization, technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism and insurrectionary anarchism), and the democratic process may be sharply criticized within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others. Anarchist attitudes towards race, gender and the environment have changed significantly since the modern origin of the philosophy in the 18th century.

On a tactical level, while propaganda of the deed was a tactic used by anarchists in the 19th century (e.g. the Nihilist movement), contemporary anarchists espouse alternative direct action methods such as nonviolence, counter-economics and anti-state cryptography to bring about an anarchist society. About the scope of an anarchist society, some anarchists advocate a global one, while others do so by local ones.[162]​ The diversity in anarchism has led to widely different use of identical terms among different anarchist traditions, which has led to many definitional concerns in anarchist theory.


Véase también[editar]

Referencias[editar]

  1. ↑ *Errico Malatesta, "Towards Anarchism", MAN!. Los Angeles: International Group of San Francisco. OCLC 3930443.
  2. ↑ a b c Slevin, Carl. "Anarchism." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003.
  3. ↑ a b "Anarchism." The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 31
  4. ↑ a b Ostergaard, Geoffrey. "Anarchism". The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 14.
  5. ↑ Kropotkin, Peter (2002). Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings. Courier Dover Publications. p. 5. 
  6. ↑ R.B. Fowler (1972). «The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought». Western Political Quarterly 25 (4): 738-752. doi:10.2307/446800. 
  7. ↑ Sylvan, Richard (1995). «Anarchism». En Goodwin, Robert E. and Pettit, ed. A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy. Philip. Blackwell Publishing. p. 231. 
  8. ↑ Brooks, Frank H. (1994). The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908). Transaction Publishers. p. xi. «Usually considered to be an extreme left-wing ideology, anarchism has always included a significant strain of radical individualism, from the hyperrationalism of Godwin, to the egoism of Stirner, to the libertarians and anarcho-capitalists of today». 
  9. ↑ Colin Moynihan (2007). «Book Fair Unites Anarchists. In Spirit, Anyway». The New York Times (16 April). 
  10. ↑ Joseph Kahn (2000). «Anarchism, the Creed That Won’t Stay Dead; The Spread of World Capitalism Resurrects a Long-Dormant Movement». The New York Times (5 August). 
  11. ↑ Narveson, Jan (2002). Respecting Persons in Theory and Practice. Chapter 11: Anarchist's Case. "To see this, of course, we must expound the moral outlook underlying anarchism. To do this we must first make an important distinction between two general options in anarchist theory [...] The two are what we may call, respectively, the socialist versus the free-market, or capitalist, versions."
  12. ↑ a b Tormey, Simon, Anti-Capitalism, A Beginner's Guide, Oneworld Publications, 2004, p. 118-119
  13. ↑ Skirda, Alexandre. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press, 2002, page 191
  14. ↑ Fowler, R.B. "The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought." The Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 4. (Dec., 1972), pp. 743–744
  15. ↑ Anarchy. Merriam-Webster online.
  16. ↑ Liddell, Henry George, & Scott, Robert, "A Greek-English Lexicon"[1]
  17. ↑ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. A Greek-English Lexicon. 
  18. ↑ Nettlau, Max (1996). A Short History of Anarchism. Freedom Press. p. 162. ISBN 0900384891. 
  19. ↑ Russell, Dean. Who is a Libertarian?, Foundation for Economic Education, "Ideas on Liberty," May, 1955.
  20. ↑ Ward, Colin. Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press 2004 p. 62
    • Goodway, David. Anarchists Seed Beneath the Snow. Liverpool Press. 2006, p. 4
    • MacDonald, Dwight & Wreszin, Michael. Interviews with Dwight Macdonald. University Press of Mississippi, 2003. p. 82
    • Bufe, Charles. The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. See Sharp Press, 1992. p. iv
    • Gay, Kathlyn. Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO / University of Michigan, 2006, p. 126
    • Woodcock, George. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Broadview Press, 2004. (Uses the terms interchangeably, such as on page 10)
    • Skirda, Alexandre. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press 2002. p. 183.
    • Fernandez, Frank. Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement. See Sharp Press, 2001, page 9.

    • Note: el término "libertarismo" tiene algunas significados.
  21. ↑ Perlin, Terry M. (1979). Contemporary Anarchism. Transaction Publishers. p. 40. 
  22. ↑ Noam Chomsky, Carlos Peregrín Otero. Language and Politics. AK Press, 2004, p. 739
  23. ↑ Morris, Christopher. 1992. An Essay on the Modern State. Cambridge University Press. p. 61.
  24. ↑ Burton, Daniel C. Libertarian anarchism. Libertarian Alliance. 
  25. ↑ a b c Peter Kropotkin, "Anarchism", Encyclopædia Britannica 1910
  26. ↑ Murray Rothbard. «Concepts of the role of intellectuals in social change toward laissez faire» (PDF). Consultado el 28 de diciembre de 2008. 
  27. ↑ Cynics por Julie Piering en la Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  28. ↑ "Anarchism", Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006 (UK version)
  29. ↑ a b c d e "Anarchism", BBC Radio 4 program, In Our Time, Thursday 7 December 2006. Hosted by Melvyn Bragg of the BBC, with John Keane, Professor of Politics at University of Westminster, Ruth Kinna, Senior Lecturer in Politics at Loughborough University, and Peter Marshall, philosopher and historian.
  30. ↑ Sheehan, Sean. Anarchism, London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2004. pg. 85
  31. ↑ a b Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas godwinsep
  32. ↑ Godwin himself attributed the first anarchist writing to Edmund Burke's A Vindication of Natural Society. "Most of the above arguments may be found much more at large in Burke's Vindication of Natural Society; a treatise in which the evils of the existing political institutions are displayed with incomparable force of reasoning and lustre of eloquence…" – footnote, Ch. 2 Political Justice by William Godwin.
  33. ↑ Liberty XIV (December, 1900):1)
  34. ↑ Daniel Guerin, Anarchism: From Theory to Practice (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970).
  35. ↑ Proudhon, Solution to the Social Problem, ed. H. Cohen (New York: Vanguard Press, 1927), p.45.
  36. ↑ Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph (1979). The Principle of Federation. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0802054587. «El concepto de 'anarquía' en la política es tan racional y positivo como cualquier otro. Esto significa que, una vez que la industria se ha hecho cargo de las funciones políticas, entonces las transacciones comerciales por sí solas producen el orden social..» 
  37. ↑ Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph (1969). Selected Writings. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books. OCLC 221546850.  Parámetro desconocido |= ignorado (ayuda); Texto «enlaceautor» ignorado (ayuda)
  38. ↑ Bernstein, Samuel. 1985. French Political and Intellectual. History. Transaction Publishers. p. 174
  39. ↑ Pierre Joseph Proudhon What Is Property. Criticism Of Private Property and Socialism. History Of Economic Theory and Thought
  40. ↑ Proudhon: The first liberal socialist, Stanford University
  41. ↑ Anarchism, The New Encyclopedia of Social Reform (1908)
  42. ↑ Harrison, Kevin and Boyd, Tony. Understanding Political Ideas and Movements. Manchester University Press 2003, p. 251
  43. ↑ Ward, Colin. Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 2
  44. ↑ Heywood, Andrew, Key Concepts in Politics, Palgrave, ISBN 0-312-23381-7, 2000, p. 46
  45. ↑ Freeden, Michael. Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019829414X. pp. 314
  46. ↑ a b Woodcock, George. 2004. Anarchism: A History Of Libertarian Ideas And Movements. Broadview Press. p. 20
  47. ↑ Johnson, Ellwood. The Goodly Word: The Puritan Influence in America Literature, Clements Publishing, 2005, p. 138.
    Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, edited by Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman, Alvin Saunders Johnson, 1937, p. 12.
  48. ↑ Vincent, Andrew. Modern Political Ideologies. Wiley-Blackwell (pg. 116)
  49. ↑ Brooks, Frank H. 1994. The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908). Transaction Publishers. p. xi
  50. ↑ Gerard Radnitzky, Hardy Bouillon. Libertarians and Liberalism. Avebury, 1996. p. 49
  51. ↑ Edward Craig. Rutledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor & Francis, 1998. p. 248.
  52. ↑ Adams, Ian. Political Ideology Today. Manchester University Press, 2001. p. 116
  53. ↑ Godwin, William (1796) [1793]. Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Modern Morals and Manners. G.G. and J. Robinson. OCLC 2340417.  Parámetro desconocido |= ignorado (ayuda); Texto «enlaceautor» ignorado (ayuda)
  54. ↑ Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Retrieved 7 December 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online
  55. ↑ a b Paul McLaughlin. Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007. p. 119
  56. ↑ Paul McLaughlin. Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007. p. 123
  57. ↑ Goodway, David. Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow. Liverpool University Press, 2006, page 99
  58. ↑ Goodway, David. Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow. Liverpool University Press, 2006, page 99
  59. ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas SEP-Stirner
  60. ↑ The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge. Encyclopedia Corporation. p. 176
  61. ↑ Miller, David. "Anarchism." 1987. The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p 11
  62. ↑ "What my might reaches is my property; and let me claim as property everything I feel myself strong enough to attain, and let me extend my actual property as fas as I entitle, that is, empower myself to take…" In Ossar, Michael. 1980. Anarchism in the Dramas of Ernst Toller. SUNY Press. p. 27
  63. ↑ Moggach, Douglas. The New Hegelians. Cambridge University Press, 2006 p. 194
  64. ↑ Moggach, Douglas. The New Hegelians. Cambridge University Press, 2006 p. 191
  65. ↑ Moggach, Douglas. The New Hegelians. Cambridge University Press, 2006 p. 190
  66. ↑ "Max Stirner". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
  67. ↑ a b c d Levy, Carl. "Anarchism." Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007.
  68. ↑ Avrich, Paul. "The Anarchists in the Russian Revolution." Russian Review, Vol. 26, No. 4. (Oct., 1967). p. 343
  69. ↑ "For Ourselves Council for Generalized Self-Management" discusses Stirner and speaks of a "communist egoism," which is said to be a "synthesis of individualism and collectivism," and says that "greed in its fullest sense is the only possible basis of communist society."For Ourselves, [2] The Right to Be Greedy: Theses On The Practical Necessity Of Demanding Everything, 1974.
  70. ↑ "El anarquismo es una palabra sin sentido, si no incluye la libertad de la persona para controlar su producto o lo que sea que su producto le ha brindado a través del intercambio en un mercado libre, es decir, la propiedad privada. Quien niega la propiedad privada es necesariamente un arquista.", por Benjamin Tucker en The New Freewoman, 15 de noviembre de 1913
  71. ↑ Tucker, Benjamin (1893). Instead of a Book. «La defensa es un servicio como cualquier otro servicio; es un trabajo a la vez útil y deseado, por tanto es una mercancía sujeta a la ley de la oferta y la demanda; que en un libre mercado esta mercancía se ofrecerá a precio de costo; que prevaleciendo la competencia, el patrocinio irá a quien ofrezca el mejor producto al precio más bajo; que la producción y venta de ésta mercancía está ahora monopolizada por el Estado; y el Estado al igual que todo monopolista, carga precios exhorbitantes.»  Parámetro desconocido |authrolink= ignorado (ayuda) Tucker, Benjamin (October 19, 1891). «[unknown]». Liberty. «El anarquismo no excluye las prisiones, funcionarios, militares, u otros símbolos de la fuerza. Se limita a demandar que no-invasores no sean las víctimas de esa fuerza. El anarquismo no es el reino del amor, sino el reino de la justicia. No significa la supresión de los símbolos de la fuerza, sino la aplicación de la fuerza sobre los invasores reales.» 
  72. ↑ Tucker, Benjamin. "Labor and Its Pay", from Individual Liberty: Selections from the Writings of Benjamin T. Tucker
  73. ↑ Madison, Charles A. "Anarchism in the United States." Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol 6, No 1, January 1945, p. 53.
  74. ↑ Schwartzman, Jack. "Ingalls, Hanson, and Tucker: Nineteenth-Century American Anarchists." American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 62, No. 5 (November, 2003). p. 325
  75. ↑ Spooner, Lysander. The Law of Intellectual Property
  76. ↑ a b Watner, Carl (1977). Benjamin Tucker and His Periodical, Liberty — PDF (868 KB). Journal of Libertarian Studies, Vol. 1, No. 4, p. 308
  77. ↑ Watner, Carl. "Spooner Vs. Liberty" — PDF (1.20 MB) in The Libertarian Forum. March 1975. Volume VII, No 3. ISSN 0047–4517. pp. 5–6.
  78. ↑ Brooks, Frank H. 1994. The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908). Transaction Publishers. p. 75.
  79. ↑ Avrich, Paul. 2006. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America. AK Press. p. 6
  80. ↑ Miller, David. "Anarchism." The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought 1987. p. 11
  81. ↑ "A member of a community," The Mutualist; this 1826 series criticized Robert Owen's proposals, and has been attributed to a dissident Owenite, possibly from the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests of Valley Forge; Wilbur, Shawn, 2006, "More from the 1826 "Mutualist"?"
  82. ↑ Dana, Charles A. Proudhon and his "Bank of the People" (1848).
  83. ↑ Tucker, Benjamin R., "On Picket Duty", Liberty (Not the Daughter but the Mother of Order) (1881–1908); 5 January 1889; 6, 10; APS Online pg. 1
  84. ↑ "Communism versus Mutualism", Socialistic, Communistic, Mutualistic and Financial Fragments. (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1875) William Batchelder Greene: "Under the mutual system, each individual will receive the just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount; and so much as the individual laborer will then get over and above what he has earned will come to him as his share in the general prosperity of the community of which he is an individual member."
  85. ↑ Carson, Kevin A. Studies in Mutualist Polical Economy Preface.
  86. ↑ Avrich, Paul. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America, Princeton University Press 1996 ISBN 0-69-04494-5, p.6
    Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought, Blackwell Publishing 1991 ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p.11
  87. ↑ Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. What Is Property? Princeton, MA: Benjamin R. Tucker, 1876. p. 281.
  88. ↑ Morris, Brian. Bakunin: The Philosophy of Freedom. Black Rose Books Ltd., 1993. p. 76
  89. ↑ Rae, John. Contemporary Socialism. C. Scribner's sons, 1901, Original from Harvard University. p. 261
  90. ↑ a b Patsouras, Louis. 2005. Marx in Context. iUniverse. p. 54
  91. ↑ Avrich, Paul. 2006. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America. AK Press. p. 5
  92. ↑ Morris, Christopher W. 1998. An Essay on the Modern State. Cambridge University Press. p 50. The collectivist category is also sometimes known as social, socialist, or communitarian anarchism category.
  93. ↑ Kropotkin, Peter (2007). «13». The Conquest of Bread. Edinburgh: AK Press. ISBN 9781904859109. 
  94. ↑ Guillaume, James (1876). «Ideas on Social Organization». 
  95. ↑ Bakunin, Mikhail (1990). Statism and Anarchy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521361826. «They [the Marxists] maintain that only a dictatorship- their dictatorship, of course- can create the will of the people, while our answer to this is: No dictatorship can have any other aim but that of self-perpetuation, and it can beget only slavery in the people tolerating it; freedom can be created only by freedom, that is, by a universal rebellion on the part of the people and free organization of the toiling masses from the bottom up.» 
  96. ↑ Puente, Isaac."Libertarian Communism". The Cienfuegos Press Anarchist Review. Issue 6 Orkney 1982
  97. ↑ Graeber, David and Grubacic, Andrej. Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century
  98. ↑ Miller. Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought, Blackwell Publishing (1991) ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 12
  99. ↑
  100. ↑ a b Kropotkin, Peter (1907). The Conquest of Bread. New York: Putnam. p. 202. ISBN 7195197 |isbn= incorrecto (ayuda). 
  101. ↑ Kropotkin, Peter. Words of a Rebel, p99.
  102. ↑ Peter Kropotkin, The Conquest of Bread
  103. ↑ a b Kropotkin Act for yourselves. N.Walter and H. Becker, eds. (London: Freedom Press 1985) [p. 104-5]
  104. ↑ Yarros, Victor S. "A Princely Paradox", Liberty, Vol 4. No. 19, Saturday, 9 April 1887, Whole Number 97; Tucker, Benjamin. "Labor and Its Pay"; Appleton, Henry. "Anarchism, True and False", Liberty 2.24, no. 50, 6 September 1884, p. 4; Swartz, Clarence Lee. What is Mutualism?
  105. ↑ Christopher Gray, Leaving the Twentieth Century, p. 88.
  106. ↑ Emma Goldman, Anarchism and Other Essays, p. 50.
  107. ↑ a b Dielo Trouda (2006) [1926]. Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft). Italy: FdCA. Consultado el 24 de octubre de 2006.  Parámetro desconocido |= ignorado (ayuda); Texto «enlaceautor» ignorado (ayuda)
  108. ↑ Berry, David, A History of the French Anarchist Movement, 1917–1945 p.134
  109. ↑ a b Iain Mckay, ed. (2008). «Are there different types of social anarchism?». An Anarchist FAQ. Stirling: AK Press. ISBN 1902593901. OCLC 182529204. 
  110. ↑ Anarchosyndicalism by Rudolf Rocker, retrieved 7 September 2006
  111. ↑ Esenwein, George Richard "Anarchist Ideology and the Working Class Movement in Spain, 1868–1898" [p. 135]
  112. ↑ Avrich, Paul. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America. Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 6
  113. ↑ Voltairine De Cleyre, "Why I Am an Anarchist"
  114. ↑ Nettlau, Max. A Short History of Anarchism [p. 198–9]
  115. ↑ Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America, Paul Avrich (2006). p. 475
  116. ↑ Williams, Leonard (September de 2007). «Anarchism Revived». New Political Science 29 (3). doi:10.1080/07393140701510160.  Parámetro desconocido |= ignorado (ayuda); Texto «página» ignorado (ayuda)
  117. ↑ Edward Stringham, Anarchy, State, and Public Choice, Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 2005.
  118. ↑ "Exclusive Interview With Murray Rothbard" The New Banner: A Fortnightly Libertarian Journal. 25 February 1972.
  119. ↑ "This volume honors the foremost contemporary exponent of market anarchism. One contributor describes Murray Rothbard as 'the most ideologically committed zero-State academic economist on earth'." Review by Lawrence H. White of "Man, Economy, and Liberty: Essays in honor of Murray N. Rothbard", published in Journal of Economic Literature, Vol XXVIII, June 1990, page 664
  120. ↑ "Anarcho-capitalism." Oxford English Dictionary. 2004. Oxford University Press.
  121. ↑ Jainendra, Jha. 2002. "Anarchism." Encyclopedia of Teaching of Civics and Political Science. p. 52. Anmol Publications.
  122. ↑ Rothbard, Murray N. "A Future of Peace and Capitalism." Modern Political Economy. James H. Weaver (ed.). pp 419. Allyn and Bacon.
  123. ↑ Murray Rothbard, A Future of Peace and Capitalism; Murray Rothbard, Left and Right: The Prospects for Liberty.
  124. ↑ Rothbard, Murray (1969) Confiscation and the Homestead Principle — PDF (580 KB) The Libertarian Forum Vol. I, No. VI (15 June 1969) Retrieved 5 August 2006
  125. ↑ Hess, Karl. "The Death of Politics." Playboy Magazine, March 1969
  126. ↑ Raico, Ralph (2004) Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century Ecole Polytechnique, Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee, Unité associée au CNRS
  127. ↑ Rothbard, Murray. Preface. The Production of Security. By Gustave Molinari. 1849, 1977. [3]
  128. ↑ DeLeon, David. The American as Anarchist: Reflections on Indigenous Radicalism. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978, p. 127
  129. ↑ Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought, 1987, ISBN 0-631-17944-5, p. 290: "A student and disciple of the Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises, Rothbard combined the laissez-faire economics of his teacher with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist American anarchists of the 19th century, such as Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker. (Rothbard himself is on the anarchist wing of the movement.)"
  130. ↑ Adams, Ian. 2002. Political Ideology Today. p. 135. Manchester University Press; Ostergaard, Geoffrey. 2003. "Anarchism." The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought. W. Outwaite ed. Blackwell Publishing. p. 14.
  131. ↑ Konkin, Samuel Edward (2006). New Libertarian Manifesto (PDF). KoPubCo. ISBN 9780977764921. Consultado el 28 de diciembre de 2008. 
  132. ↑ Watner, Carl. On the History of the Word "Voluntaryism"
  133. ↑ Vernor Vinge, James Frankel. True Names: And the Opening of the Cyberspace Frontier (2001), Tor Books, p.44
  134. ↑ Goldman, "Marriage and Love", Red Emma Speaks, p. 205
  135. ↑ Brown, Susan. "Beyond Feminism: Anarchism and Human Freedom" Anarchist Papers 3 Black Rose Books (1990) p. 208
  136. ↑ Anarchist-Communism by Alain Pengam
  137. ↑ Wendy McElroy, XXX: A Woman's Right to Pornography.
  138. ↑ Ward, Colin (2004). Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 0192804774. 
  139. ↑ Stewart Davidson, 2009, 'EcoAnarchism: A Critical Defence', in the Journal of Political Ideologies, volume 14, pp. 47-67
  140. ↑ a b Dominick, Brian. Animal Liberation and Social Revolution: A vegan perspective on anarchism or an anarchist perspective on veganism, third edition, Firestarter Press, 1997, page 1, 5 and 6.
  141. ↑ Jonathan Purkis and James Bowen, "Introduction: Why Anarchism Still Matters", in Jonathan Purkis and James Bowen (eds), Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), p.3.
  142. ↑ Breunig, Charles (1977). The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789 - 1850. New York, N.Y: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-09143-0. 
  143. ↑ Blin, Arnaud (2007). The History of Terrorism. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 116. ISBN 0520247094. 
  144. ↑ Dodson, Edward (2002). The Discovery of First Principles: Volume 2. Authorhouse. p. 312. ISBN 0595249124. 
  145. ↑ Thomas, Paul (1985). Karl Marx and the Anarchists. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 187. ISBN 0710206852. 
  146. ↑ Engel, Barbara (2000). Mothers and Daughters. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. p. 140. ISBN 0810117401. 
  147. ↑ a b "On the International Workingmen's Association and Karl Marx" in Bakunin on Anarchy, translated and edited by Sam Dolgoff, 1971
  148. ↑ Bakunin, Mikhail (1991) [1873]. Statism and Anarchy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36973-8.  Parámetro desconocido |= ignorado (ayuda); Texto «enlaceautor» ignorado (ayuda)
  149. ↑ Graham, Robert ''Anarchism (Montreal: Black Rose Books 2005) ISBN 1-55164-251-4
  150. ↑ Resolutions from the St. Imier Congress, in Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Vol. 1, p.100 [4]
  151. ↑ «How May Day Became a Workers' Holiday». The Guide to Life, The Universe and Everything. bbc.co.uk. 4 October 2001. Consultado el 19 de enero de 2008. «(It is) Resolved ... that eight hours shall constitute a legal day's labor from and after 1 May 1886, and that we recommend to labor organizations throughout this district that they so direct their laws so as to conform to this resolution by the time named.» 
  152. ↑ «How May Day Became a Workers' Holiday». The Guide to Life, The Universe and Everything. bbc.co.uk. 4 October 2001. Consultado el 19 de enero de 2008. 
  153. ↑ Avrich. The Haymarket Tragedy. p. 193. 
  154. ↑ «Patrolman Mathias J. Degan». The Officer Down Memorial Page, Inc. Consultado el 19 de enero de 2008. 
  155. ↑ Chicago Tribune, 27 June 1886, quoted in Avrich. The Haymarket Tragedy. p. 209. 
  156. ↑ «Act II: Let Your Tragedy Be Enacted Here». The Dramas of Haymarket. Chicago Historical Society. 2000. Consultado el 19 de enero de 2008. 
  157. ↑ Foner. May Day. p. 42. 
  158. ↑ Extract of Malatesta's declaration (en francés)
  159. ↑ Carley, Mark "Trade union membership 1993–2003" (International:SPIRE Associates 2004)
  160. ↑ Holbrow, Marnie, "Daring but Divided" (Socialist Review November 2002)
  161. ↑ Berry, David. "Fascism or Revolution." Le Libertaire. August 1936)
  162. ↑ Ted Honderich, Carmen García Trevijano, Oxford Enciclopedy of Philosophy

Lectura adicional[editar]

  • Anarchism. A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas. Robert Graham, editor.
    • Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE to 1939) Black Rose Books, Montréal y Londres 2005. ISBN 1551642506.
    • Volume Two: The Anarchist Current (1939–2006) Black Rose Books, Montréal 2007. ISBN 9781551643113.
  • Anarchism, George Woodcock (Penguin Books, 1962).
  • Anarchy: A Graphic Guide, Clifford Harper (Camden Press, 1987): An overview, updating Woodcock's classic, and illustrated throughout by Harper's woodcut-style artwork.
  • The Anarchist Reader, George Woodcock (ed.) (Fontana/Collins 1977; ISBN 0006340113): An anthology of writings from anarchist thinkers and activists including Proudhon, Kropotkin, Bakunin, Malatesta, Bookchin, Goldman, and many others.
  • Anarchy and the Law: The Political Economy of Choice, Edward Stringham (Transaction Publishers, 2007; ISBN 1412805791): An overview of the major arguments and historical studies about private property anarchism.
  • Anarchy as Order: The History and Future of Civic Humanity, Mohammed Bamyeh (Rowan & Littlefield, 2009).

Enlaces externos[editar]

Fuentes generales[editar]

Biografía y bibliografía[editar]

Obtenido de «https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Usuario:Sageo/Anarquismo&oldid=158564968»